What Is Inference in Arguments

In logic, an inference is the process of deriving logical conclusions from premises known or assumed to be true. The term derives from the Latin term, which means bring in. An inference is said to be valid if its based upon sound evidence and the conclusion follows logically from the premises. Examples and Observations From a drop of water, a logician could infer the possibility of an Atlantic or a Niagara without having seen or heard of one or the other.(Arthur Conan Doyle, A Study in Scarlet, 1887)[James] Watson, of course, shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology for discovering, with the late Francis Crick, the double-helix structure of DNA, the master molecule of heredity. In his chronicle of that achievement, The Double Helix, Watson cast himself as the swashbuckling genius fighting his way to the top, climbing over anyone who got in his way (including Rosalind Franklin, who took the x-ray images that formed the basis for Watson and Cricks inference about DNAs structure but whom Watson and Crick failed to credit at the time).(Sharon Begley, Watson Does it Again. Newsweek, Oct. 18, 2007) Steven Pinker on Inferences [T]he mind has to get something out of forming categories, and that something is  inference. Obviously, we cant know everything about every object. But we can observe some of its properties, assign it to a category, and from the category predict properties that we have not observed. If Mopsy has long ears, he is a rabbit; if he is a rabbit, he should eat carrots, go hippety-hop, and breed like, well, a rabbit. The smaller the category, the better the prediction. Knowing that Peter is a cottontail, we can predict that he grows, breathes, moves, was ​suckled, inhabits open country or woodland clearings, spreads tularemia, and can contract myxomatosis. If we knew only that he was a mammal, the list would include only growing, breathing, moving, and being suckled. If we knew only that he was an animal, it would shrink to growing, breathing, and moving.(Steven Pinker, How the Mind Works. W.W. Norton, 1997) S.I. Hayakawa on Inferences An  inference, as we shall use the term, is a statement about the unknown made on the basis of the known. We may infer from the material and cut of a womans clothes her wealth or social position; we may infer from the character of the ruins the origin of the fire that destroyed the building; we may infer from a mans calloused hands the nature of his occupation; we may infer from a senators vote on an armaments bill his attitude toward Russia; we may infer from the structure of land the path of a prehistoric glacier; we may infer from a halo on an unexposed photographic plate that it has been in the vicinity of radioactive materials; we may infer from the sound of an engine the condition of its connecting rods. Inferences may be carefully or carelessly made. They may be made on the basis of a broad background of previous experience with the subject matter or with no experience at all. For example, the inferences a good mechanic can make about the internal condition of a motor by lis tening to it are often startlingly accurate, while the inferences made by an amateur (if he tries to make any) may be entirely wrong. But the common characteristic of inferences is that they are statements about matters which are not directly known, statements made on the basis of what has been observed.(S.I. Hayakawa, Language in Thought and Action, 3rd ed. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972) Inference and Deduction Deduction is typically distinguished from induction by the fact that only for the former is the truth of an inference guaranteed by the truth of the premises on which it is based (given that all men are mortal and that Socrates is a man, we can deduce with complete certainty that Socrates is mortal). The fact that an inference is a valid deduction, however, is no guarantee that it is of the slightest interest. For example, if we know that snow is white, we are free to apply a standard rule of deductive inference to conclude that either snow is white or lions wear argyle socks. In most realistic contexts such deductions will be as worthless as they are valid.(John H. Holland, Keith J. Holyoak, Richard E. Nisbett, and Paul R. Thagard, Induction: Processes of Inference, Learning, and Discovery. MIT Press, 1996) George Eliot on Inferences A dull mind, once arriving at an inference that flatters a desire, is rarely able to retain the impression that the notion from which the inference started was purely problematic. And Dunstans mind was as dull as the mind of a possible felon usually is.(George Eliot, Silas Marner, 1861) The Lighter Side of Inferences Sheldon Cooper: I took another look at the board, and I realized you were right.Raj Koothrappali: So you were wrong.Sheldon Cooper: Im not saying that.Raj Koothrappali: Thats the only logical inference.Sheldon Cooper: Im still not saying it.(Jim Parsons and Kunal Nayyar, The Pirate Solution. The Big Bang Theory, 2009)

Why Congress Should Have Term Limits - 1607 Words

If Congress should have term limits or not has been a long debated question that is suggested as an amendment to the qualifications division of the Constitution. There are outstanding arguments on both side of the issue 5; unconstitutionality versus limiting power and mixture versus seniority are just a few. Term limits are requirement to upload the founder’s objectives, to inhibit unfair advantages given to resident, and to permit an assembly of additional benefits. Opponents of term limits have said in today’s world we need men and women to represent them in congress and term limits which will remove legislators when the start to become useful to constituents. There is a lot of argument regarding the issue of term limits, in which a service in elective office after a fixed and specified number of terms is directed. The idea of issuing term limits is not only a damage to the Constitution, but also a quick fix to a problem that may just end up affecting severe outcomes down the line. Authorizing term limits to deal with the corruption among congressmen is not a normal solution. If some parts of the system were dishonest, term limits would basically get cleared of everyone, those upsetting Congress both negatively and positively. At that juncture new representatives are selected and they become corrupt and are soon thrown out, and this cycle of continuing corruption will go on and on for a while, and would not be fixed. Likewise, the fact that term limit gives aShow MoreRelatedTerm Limits Of Congress : Congress1675 Words   |  7 PagesTerm Limits in Congress More than seventy-nine congressmen have been in office in both the United States House of Representatives and the Senate for twenty years or more; Patrick Leahy, Dianne Heinstein, Mitch McConnell, Mac Thornberry, and many, many more. James Madison states in Federalist 48 that â€Å"The legislative department is everywhere†¦ drawing all power into its impetuous vortex†(Will). Congress corrupts with power and the only way to stop this is to impose term limits on the US Congress.Read MoreInto:.. Lifelong, What Does This Term Mean To You? According1191 Words   |  5 PagesInto: Lifelong, what does this term mean to you? According to merriam-webster.com lifelong is anything that spans the entire lifetime of an individual. Most of the time this term refers to love, relationships, habits, traditions, and by many politicians their job. Now I know most of you are like I don’t understand you can t think of a job as lifelong because you do not get to keep a job forever? Well according to many of our Congress men and women it is the complete opposite because there isRead MoreCongressmen See The Incumbency Advantage As A Blessing1105 Words   |  5 Pagesis clearly evident, and puts the democracy at risk because America was built on the foundation that no one person should fully control the country. Elections are held for our legislators in government to promote the shift in power. It was a leading cause to the creation of the XXII amendment stating that the president can serve two terms max. Each district is hurt by having long-term incumbents because this makes the representative less responsive to his constituents (Friedman 69). The incumbencyRead MoreEssay on Congress And The Change In Term Limits1719 Words   |  7 Pages Congress and The Change in Term Limits In 1994, for the first time in 40 years, Congress was drastically changed. The Democratic majority was uprooted and new, lively, freshmen were instated with a job to undertake. As part of the Republican=s AContract with America,@ these new Republicans had to revise the current Congressional term limit status. In undertaking this task, these men and women ran into a seemingly stone road-block. This roadblock consisted of long-term, carreerists who were unwillingRead MoreThe Term Limits Movement For State Legislatures1665 Words   |  7 PagesAbstract: The term limits movement for state legislatures has been gaining momentum. Fourteen states adopted limit initiatives in 1992. The goal of this final paper was to determine the factors that have contributed to the growth of the term limits movement. Much background research was conducted to determine the characteristics of the movement. Past research suggested several apparent reasons for the growth of the movement. These reasons included the existence of direct initiative, rates ofRead MoreCongressional Term Limits934 Words   |  4 PagesCongressional terms have no limits. Controversy exists between those who think the terms should be limited and those who believe that terms should remain unlimited. The group that wants to limit the terms argues that the change will promote fresh ideas and reduce the possibility of d ecisions being made for self-interest. Those who oppose term limits believe that we would sacrifice both the stability and experience held by veteran politicians. They also point out that our election process allowsRead MoreThe Emancipation of a Member of Congress 1224 Words   |  5 Pagescertain state. They currently have no limits on how long they can serve. There are many faces in Congress that have been there for over 20 years. I intend to explain why having the same people hold the same office is not healthy for the average American citizen. The original intent of the Constitution was to limit government and the self-serving interests that become tyrannical by their very nature. The fact that the founders did not include limiting terms for Congress appears to be a great oversightRead MoreWhy Are Citizens Holding Congress?1275 Words   |  6 Pagesin the system of checks and balances in our government. According to the U.S. Constitution, the Legislative branch or bet ter known as Congress, is responsible for making laws. Though trusted with this power, Congress does not effectively execute this action due to their inability to work together and make decisions on bills. Due to this indecisiveness, Congress is constantly being slammed in the media and is beginning to be referred to as the immature branch of government. Their indecisivenessRead MoreThe Power Of The War882 Words   |  4 PagesAccording to Article One, Section Eight, Congress has the power â€Å"To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water;† This means that Congress must be consulted before going to war and has the power to not only declare war, but also the power to raise an army and navy, to fund war effort; however, the President, in Article II, is named commander-in-chief of the armed forces, but this does not give him the power to commit armed forces to warRead MoreUs National Debt1414 Words   |  6 Pag esTrumbull raises nine different questions: 1) What is the debt ceiling, and why does it exist? 2) Are we close to hitting the limit? 3) Will Congress raise the limit and what happens if they don’t? 4) Is the national debt’s growing size behind this â€Å"ceiling† controversy? 5) What would fiscal hawks like to achieve, in return for raising the ceiling? 6) Could the tea party spirit spark an outright refusal to raise the debt limit? 7) If this bogs down in a game of political chicken, how can the

Do you think that religion is as important today as it was in the past Free Essays

Religion involves the relationship between mankind and what is regarded as sacred. Religion almost always includes the belief in the supernatural and a code of ethical behavior. Why do men suffer? What is the nature of the Universe and How it is governed? What is the nature of man and what is his destiny? Religion tries to answer the questions of ultimate existence and of life and death and human and destiny. We will write a custom essay sample on Do you think that religion is as important today as it was in the past? or any similar topic only for you Order Now Many religions hold the universe is governed by God. â€Å"Through religion man may see meaning in the universe and find a personal role in it† (Berger 50). Thousands of years ago, religion played a very vital role in the lives of the people. Even though that time, things were not that complicated. People still has a closer connection to God. People then put a greater emphasis on going to church, fellowshipping with their brother’s and sister’s in the Lord and in maintaining their relationship with their creator. As of now, in our present times I think that Religion is ten times important than it was before. As the modern world is evolving and is now being introduced to different kinds of beliefs and theories that could likely shake our foundation of faith for God. The basis and the only foundation of our faith is Jesus Christ. We must hold on to him more especially these days that there are many deceivers out there that are being used by the enemy to destroy us and to keep us away from the loving arms of God. When we don’t have a strong foundation of our relationship to God, we can easily yield to the temptations and offerings that Satan will present to us, like the technology of today. If we don’t know how to control the usage of technology of today, we can be manipulated and controlled by it. That is just one of the tactics of Satan to let us fall into the pit he is preparing for us, for us to be kept away from God’s destiny for us. Today, there are many existing religions. There are the Protestants, Orthodox and the Roman Catholics. Like in the past, there was a Counter Reformation that happened. Which was also described as â€Å"the Catholic Reformation and in this period of the Reformations, it included a series of wars that ended in 1648† (Berger 53). The Reformation seemed primarily a religious upheaval; it was also a complex social and political movement. A revolt against the religion and the way of life. It was a part of the transition from medieval to modern times. The revolt accompanied a change in the political, economic, intellectual, and ecclesiastical traditions of the medieval age of faith. The results touched every aspect of human life. The Counter Reformation was a struggle against Protestantism; it was a movement for the spiritual and moral reform within the Catholic Church. â€Å"The wars that accompanied the Reformation were basically political, but they were closely bound up with the religious issues† (Berger 53). That time, there was a great competition between the Protestants and the Catholics. The struggle dragged on because the stronger could not conquer and the weaker would not compromise. It was said that â€Å"the Western Church was split between Catholics and Protestants. By the latter part, the dividing lines had hardened, during the following centuries they changed very little. The protestant split into several groups, and later they subdivided again and again† (Berger 54).The Reformation was a historical event of great significance. It became a part of a larger movement that led to the development of independent nations and modern democracy. In this present time, Reformation still exists in such a way that there are still many existing religions now. There are still issues regarding Catholicism and its doctrines. There are still political movements that are being influenced by the religious sects. There still existing competitions between religions now, in which they compete if what religion will really help people reach heaven, let their prayers be heard by God and be with their Creator. There are still a number of religious issues being tackled by now. The issues that keeps affecting the different aspects of human life. Different religions keep on competing for them to invite individuals to come and join with them. Sometimes because of these, the essence of having a religion is lost. The real perspective of establishing a deeper relationship with God is lost because of the overwhelming issues that could bother the spiritual and emotional aspect of a person. â€Å"The real role of having a religion is to develop a deeper and serious relationship with our Almighty Creator† (Berger 54). God does not base our salvation on what religious denomination we join to. He looks at the position of our hearts and of we really love Him and long to be with Him sincerely. He does not base his judgment on the things we do and achieve. It is our hearts that He looks up to.   Whatever we have, whatever we do and whatever group we are simply does not matter to God at all. He just wants us to love Him above all, above all the things that this world offers to us, and also for us to not yield to the wiles of the enemy. We should guard the health of our body, soul and Spirit. For we human are described as â€Å"fragile and weak† (Berger 67). We should be clean spiritually so as not to hurt God and for us to be a blessing to other individuals in this world, that wherever we are and whatever we do; we do all those things for the glorification of His name. Reference: Berger, Gilda. Religion .Watts, 1983. How to cite Do you think that religion is as important today as it was in the past?, Essay examples

Need for an International Information Security-Free-Samples

Question: Discuss about the need for an International Information Security Standard for Small Medium Enterprises. Answer: The need for an International Information Security Standard for Small Medium Enterprises The information security standards help SME to keep their informational assets secured. It helps the organization to manage security and privacy of assets like the financial information, details of employee, intellectual property and other confidential data. Into the small medium enterprise (SME), there is adoption of information security standards which is beneficial factor to foster growth, competiveness as well as innovation (Janulevicius et al. 2017). The information security standards mitigate the information security risks which becomes a threat to privacy. The users are more concerned regarding the handling of data to the business as well as trust of the customers. Skolmen and Gerber (2015) discussed that information security framework is such a series of documented processes which are used to define policies as well as procedures around implementation of information security controls. This particular framework is blueprint to build the program for information security for man aging of risks as well as reduction of vulnerabilities. Panjwani, Jantti and Sormunen (2016) argued that the security frameworks are used to solve the issues related to information security to meet with customized requirements of the SME. Drivers to pursue information security and privacy standards Luhach, Dwivedi and Jha (2014) stated that adoption of information security standards indicate that the organization is being committed to implement security mechanisms to protect the data. Implementation, maintenance as well as enforcement of the internal policies throughout use of standards are effective mean to show commitment with the organizational regulations. Saa et al. (2017) discussed the drivers to pursue of information security as well as privacy standards. SME suffers of severe impacts on the information systems as well as networks that can lead to negative business effects. Scharnick, Gerber and Futcher (2016) argued that adoption of the information security standards is effective means to mitigate the risks. Among the internet users, the risks are raised into the online transactions such as mistrust of the personal data in addition to security of the online payments. The users are concerned at the time of handling of data to the business. The customer trust is a relevan t decision factors which provide advantage to the SME. In case of SME, there is need to express compliance with the information security as well as requirements of privacy. Failure to comply with the business requirements provide a negative impact as well as long term consequences into the business of SME. Da Xu, He and Li (2014) discussed that the information security standards offer significant competitive advantage to the SME by improving over the products as well as services the organization offers. When SME adopts of information security standards, then the customers constitute to the competitive advantage when deals with the corporate clients from private as well as private sector. Barriers to adopt SME of information security standard Terzi, Terzi and Sagiroglu (2015) illustrated the barriers to adoption of SME of information security standards which are developed as well as published by the international standards development organization. The SME uses the EU level to identify which of the standards are suitable for the organization to secure information and data. Most of the SME are aware of the ISO/IEC27000 series. SME is facing of difficulties with identification of standards which meet with the business needs. Heikkila et al. (2016) told that SME stores, processes and transmits the cardholder as well as personal data which are not aware of the specific obligations. The information security along with privacy risks are transformed into relevant issues into the organization that require of attention from side of management. Into the current economic environment, SME is required to be focused on efforts to stay competitive into core operations, expand into dynamic business atmosphere. Luhach, Dwivedi and Jha (20 14) stated that achievement of growth, innovation through use of new technologies in addition to corporate governance is the top priorities of the European SME. SME is required to achieve growth with the limited resources that are required to allocate by taking account of strict time as well as budget. SME is relied on the ICT system for supporting the business processes, business size which justifies employment of dedicated individuals for the ICT functions. SME decides to internalize ICT services for outsourcing them. In case of outsourcing of the ICT services, there is lack of internal knowledge into the information security with providers of the customer security features. Al-Ghofaili and Al-Mashari (2014) argued that limited access to the capabilities of information security constitutes to the vulnerabilities for SME. Da Xu, He and Li (2014) defined that for adoption of information security standards, it is required to allocate information security roles to particular employees. The security roles are needed to manage the standards, and it is beyond human resources of SME. Implementation of information standards is time consuming where limited staffs are assisted with deployment and maintenance of the compliance. SME are aware of the potential impacts of the disrupted business services due to the technical incidents and how risk management protects from the threats as well as vulnerabilities applicable to the information assets (Skolmen and Gerber 2015). Adoption of information security standard is a key significant tool to develop structured approach for mitigation of risks, risk environment organization is required to adopt of best standards. Terzi, Terzi and Sagiroglu (2015) concluded that framework of risk management as well as implementations guidelines to the small organizations can enable as well as support them. The ongoing issue for the organizations are that it is not enough guidance based on the specific controls they implement to compliant with the personal data protection laws. Da Xu, He and Li (2014) concluded that there are barriers to the information security standards are related to the implementation aspects. It is difficult for the non-technological SME to comprehend. There is also a concern that that the language used includes of complex for the SME at the early stages of the adoption process (Panjwani, Jantti and Sormunen 2016). SME are also unaware of flexibility that the information security standards provide based on implementation as well as monitoring of controls. Recommendations to increase level of adoption of information security standards This study also proposed recommendations to facilitate adoption process of the information security standards by the small businesses. The recommendations is provided based on five domains such as increase into knowledge as well as engagement, provide mechanism to foster the standard adoption by the SME throughout regulatory compliance, facilitating of standards implementation and fostering cooperation with the stakeholders to improve information security standardization for SME. The SMEs are recommended to use of ISO/IEC 27000 standards which is popular standard provides requirements for SME information security management system. It is systematic approach for managing sensitive companys information such that it will remain secured. ISO 27000 information security standard was being developed by international standard organization. It is provided with framework which is applied to various types in addition to size of organizations. Due to adoption of ISO/IEC 27000 standard, SME solve s their security related problems and prevents to raise any security related issues. This particular framework includes of physical as well as technical controls which are involved into the organizational risk management processes. References Al-Ghofaili, A.A. and Al-Mashari, M.A., 2014, August. ERP system adoption traditional ERP systems vs. cloud-based ERP systems. InInnovative Computing Technology (INTECH), 2014 Fourth International Conference on(pp. 135-139). IEEE. Da Xu, L., He, W. and Li, S., 2014. Internet of things in industries: A survey.IEEE Transactions on industrial informatics,10(4), pp.2233-2243. Heikkil, M., Rtty, A., Piesk, S. and Jms, J., 2016, June. Security challenges in small-and medium-sized manufacturing enterprises. InSmall-scale Intelligent Manufacturing Systems (SIMS), International Symposium on(pp. 25-30). IEEE. Janulevi?ius, J., Marozas, L., ?enys, A., Goranin, N. and Ramanauskait?, S., 2017, April. Enterprise architecture modeling based on cloud computing security ontology as a reference model. InElectrical, Electronic and Information Sciences (eStream), 2017 Open Conference of(pp. 1-6). IEEE. Luhach, A.K., Dwivedi, S.K. and Jha, C.K., 2014, December. Applying SOA to an E-commerce system and designing a logical security framework for small and medium sized E-commerce based on SOA. InComputational Intelligence and Computing Research (ICCIC), 2014 IEEE International Conference on(pp. 1-6). IEEE. Panjwani, M., Jntti, M. and Sormunen, J., 2016, September. IT Service Management from a Perspective of Small and Medium Sized Companies. InQuality of Information and Communications Technology (QUATIC), 2016 10th International Conference on the(pp. 210-215). IEEE. Saa, P., Moscoso-Zea, O., Costales, A.C. and Lujn-Mora, S., 2017, June. Data security issues in cloud-based Software-as-a-Service ERP. InInformation Systems and Technologies (CISTI), 2017 12th Iberian Conference on(pp. 1-7). IEEE. Scharnick, N., Gerber, M. and Futcher, L., 2016, August. Review of data storage protection approaches for POPI compliance. InInformation Security for South Africa (ISSA), 2016(pp. 48-55). IEEE. Skolmen, D.E. and Gerber, M., 2015.Protection of personal information in the South African Cloud Computing environment: A framework for Cloud Computing adoption(pp. 1-10). IEEE. Terzi, D.S., Terzi, R. and Sagiroglu, S., 2015, December. A survey on security and privacy issues in big data. InInternet Technology and Secured Transactions (ICITST), 2015 10th International Conference for(pp. 202-207). IEEE